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General Henry Clinton, who—together with Generals William Howe and John Burgoyne—had recently arrived in Boston with reinforcements, wrote a fitting comment on this battle: “Another such victory would have ruined us.” With violence increasing each month, the Second Continental Congress assembled on May 10, 1775, and decided to pursue more radical measures in seeking redress of grievances.

Toward the end of the campaign, Hamilton himself published a fifty-four-page pamphlet excoriating Adams for his public conduct and defects of character, citing his reputed weakness, vacillation, and ungovernable temper. This freed the President to concentrate on foreign affairs, in which he scored several successes. It took several more centuries for western Europe to begin to initiate important changes in its society that would result in the migration of many of its people to the New World.

The Crusades undoubtedly triggered a good deal of these changes.

James, now the proprietor, renamed the colony New York. Some colonies were actually founded as a haven for adherents of a particular creed or church. So they quietly turned around and went home. Ministers such as Jonathan Edwards in Northampton, Massachusetts; Theodorus Frelinghuysen in New Jersey; and the young George Whitefield, who came to this country from England in 1739, preached salvation to all who would repent and place their trust in Jesus Christ.

From this turnout it was clear that most states realized something had to be done if the Union was to last. And that included Indians. The sense of nationhood was spurred on by a series of Supreme Court decisions that favored the central government at the expense of individual states. But starting in the twentieth century, as will be seen, the leadership was reversed and many more Presidents assumed greater control of legislative action.

In the south a more culturally advanced society emerged among the Aztec and Inca tribes. James Fenimore Cooper went farther. This proposal conferred broad legislative powers on the Congress and could annul state law, a feature that generated immediate criticism. George Canning, the British foreign secretary, suggested to Richard Rush, the U.S. minister to England, that their two countries jointly agree to oppose any intervention by European powers in the New World.

But as the commercial activity of New England expanded, ministers became aware of the threat to their authority and sought to counteract it by holding synods, which spelled out doctrinal errors and demanded con-

Discovery and Settlement of the New World

25

formity in understanding the will of the Almighty. Lord Cornwallis replaced Clinton, who returned to New York, while Congress appointed General Gates to supersede Lincoln.

The market revolution that ensued converted the country in time from a purely agricultural to an industrial society.

The Senate quickly ratified the treaty on October 20 by a vote of twenty-four to seven, with all but one Federalist voting against it. The preamble went on to identify the objectives of this new government: to “form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity.” The document also stated that the Constitution, the treaties, and the laws of the United States “shall be the supreme Law of the Land.” This draft was submitted to the convention on September 12 and reviewed at length.

Perhaps the most famous episode in this regard was the impeachment of an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, Samuel Chase, which failed to result in his removal.